Leadership: An argument for advances in its development

Civilization and its achievements, like the wheel, hinge on the hub of leadership. The ebb and tide of world empires point to the reins handled or pulled by individuals who exert power and influence. In this country, and even in the rest of the world, the assertions and importance of leadership is re-emphasized in many ways because of the rapidly evolving paradigms that assume a more pervasive role in the society.   This is the era of organizational revolution.The time is marked with rapid shifts in the demography of our workforce, changing corporate culture, and changing organizations. Organizational forms have become more complex and new forms have been developed (Block, 1981). The management or leadership of people has never been as important and crucial than ever before. Today, it is considered a central figure and the key to productivity and quality especially in a very competitive society. In the light of the rapid shift in today’s organization, the skills required of human resource managers, beginners in the profession and even aspiring students in the discipline, rest on the foundation of knowledge on the whole gamut of human resources management, specifically management theories applied in the setting (Kline & Saunders, 1993).The need for a more efficient, economical and equitable management of the people in the industry or organization has never been as pronounced as it is today. This need has never been brought about by factors which inevitably affect not only the established structures and ways of doing things within the personnel area but also by the more meaningful and substantial task of managing the organization’s most important asset – the human capital. Among these factors are: stiffer competition in business; rapid changes in technological, competitive and economic environments; the explosion of technical and managerial knowledge; spiraling wage and benefits cost and so many others. These factors have no doubt been resp onsible for the emergence of the personnel function as a vital area in the implementation of corporate strategy (Bruffee, 1993).The arguments set forth in this paper spins around the theme of leadership: there have been continued major advancements in the developments of basic leadership theories in the past 200 years.   One of the evidences simply is the theory put forth by Dr. Elliot Jacques, the great Canadian psychologist. Theories abound regarding perspectives of leadership. When Elliot Jacques developed the concept of requisite organization; it served as a unified whole system model for what he deemed effective managerial leadership.Some of the core beliefs in Jacques system, for instance, imply that people are supposed to be compensated on the basis of their individual aptitude or skills and foresight and how long it was before their judgment could be verified. Jacques also thought that where leadership gurus or external consultant like the ODs are concerned, these are only evaluated and equated with alchemy: as such these do not involve real concepts or precise or thorough definitions but rather are considered as rubbish and inauthentic to say the least. Jacques persuasion centers on much of what he calls as â€Å"maximum amount of personal responsibility† and encourages on every part of the organization, or team for that matter, to be stakeholders and thus have a say in the problems at hand.In organizational behavior which is basic to the management of human resource, it points to the inquiry and application of learning about how people, individuals, and groups perform, operate, and work in organizations. It accomplishes this by means of adopting a system approach (Demick & Miller, 1993). Explicitly, it infers people-organization affairs in terms of the entire person, group totality, complete organization, and total social structure. Its intention is to put up enhance relations by attaining human goals, organizational purposes, and social goa ls (Kanter, 1999). In such a milieu, the goals to effect change are influenced by several significant factors which are crucial to the overall results. Hence, there are expected leadership behaviors that maintain momentum during the change process (Demick & Miller, 1993).This strategic system model put forth by Jacques is a methodical approach to managing the human capital.   Those who study and make use of that data in exclusive contexts are rightly described as professionals; in them lies the heart and soul of the profession. Industrial-age institutions look for routine and habit accomplished through standardized measures. Complex responsibilities are split into simple steps that are assigned to organizational positions to guarantee that employees are both interchangeable and effortlessly replaced. Bureaucratic hierarchies are likely to esteem proven evaluation of specific aspects of complex managerial tasks. In view of this, the picture of leadership is in reality changing as t he image of organizations changes. Analysis ascertains those who require training and what skills or performance improvements are designated. Aims and goals set the restriction for the instructional outline and help attain the appropriate learning outcomes (Kincheloe, 1991).Peter Northouse, author of Leadership: Theory and Practice observed the revival of an all-encompassing skills-based model of leadership distinguished by a map for how to reach efficient leadership in organizations (Northouse, 2004). He recommended that the classification of specific skills which can be improved by training has an intuitive appeal: â€Å"When leadership is framed as a set of skills, it becomes a process that people can study and practice to become better at their jobs† (Northouse, 2004).He also suggests that although the skills-based approach claims not to be a trait model, it includes individual attributes that look a great deal like traits. The act of leadership is also an exercise of mor al reasoning. In their book Unmasking Administrative Evil, Guy Adams and Danny Balfour caution against elevating the scientific-analytical mindset higher than all other forms of rationality. Even as the rise of â€Å"technical rationality led inevitably to specialized, expert knowledge, the very life blood of the professional,† it also â€Å"spawned unintended consequences in the areas of morals and ethics as the science-based technical rationality undermined normative judgments and relegated ethical considerations to afterthoughts† (Adams & Balfour, 2004).Distinguished scholar Ronald Heifetz on the other hand, developed a definition of leadership that takes values into account. He maintains that we should look at leadership as more than a means to organizational effectiveness. Efficiency means getting achievable decisions that execute the goals of the organization. â€Å"This definition has the benefit of being generally applicable, but it provides no real guide to d etermine the nature or formation of those goals.† (Heifetz, 1994).   Heifetz went on to say that values such as â€Å"liberty, equality, human welfare, justice, and community† are inculcated with first-rate leaders (Heifetz, 1994). It is a necessity then, the infusion of these principles into the leader and from the leader into the organization.Reference:1. Adams, Guy B. & Danny L. Balfour, 2004.   Unmasking Administrative Evil (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, pp. 31-36.Beckhard, R. 1969. Organization Development: Strategies and Models, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Permissions Department, 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ07030 USA. Block, Peter, Flawless Consulting: A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used, University   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Associates, San Diego, CA 1981. Bruffee, Kenneth A. Collaborative Learning: Higher Education, Interdependence, and   Ã‚   the Authority of Knowledge. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1993. Demick, J. an d Miller, P., Development in the Workplace, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,   Ã‚  Ã‚   Publishers, New Jersey, 1993. Heifetz, Ronald A., 1994. Leadership Without Easy Answers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, pp. 21-22. Northouse, Peter G. 2004. Leadership Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, pp. 35-52.

English Assessment Essay

? Controlled Assessment is a new form of internal assessment. Following a coursework review by QCA, Controlled Assessment has been introduced as part of nearly all new GCSEs, to replace coursework. High, medium or limited control levels are set for each of the Controlled Assessment processes: task setting, task taking and task marking. For each stage, the level of control will ensure reliability and authenticity, and make assessments more manageable for teachers and candidates. Weighting of Controlled Assessments is defined by QCA subject criteria and, depending on the subject, will be  25% or 60% of the total assessment. 1. 2 What does ‘control’ actually mean? QCA has produced a Glossary of terms for Controlled Assessment regulations. The levels of controls are defined as follows: ? Formal supervision (High level of control) – the candidate must be in direct sight of the supervisor at all times. Use of resources and interaction with other candidates is tightly prescribed. Informal supervision (Medium level of control) – questions/tasks are outlined, the use of resources is not tightly prescribed and assessable outcomes may be informed by group work. Supervision is confined to (i) ensuring that the contributions of individual candidates are recorded accurately, and (ii) ensuring that plagiarism does not take place. The supervisor may provide limited guidance to candidates. Limited supervision (Limited level of control) – requirements are clearly specified, but some work may be completed without direct supervision and will not contribute directly to assessable outcomes. ? ? 1. 3 What is the purpose of this Guide? This Guide provides detailed information for teachers about how to manage Controlled Assessment: some of the information applies to all GCSE subjects and some information provides subject specific guidance. It is important to make the point that this Guide plays a secondary role to the Specification itself. The Specification is the document on which assessment is based and specifies what content and skills need to be covered in delivering the course. At all times,  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 3. therefore, this teacher support should be read in conjunction with the Specification. If clarification on a particular point is sought then that clarification should be found in the Specification itself. Teaching of this qualification will vary greatly from school to school and from teacher to teacher. With that in mind, this Guide is offered as guidance but may be subject to modifications by the individual teacher. 4  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 2 Summary of the Controlled Assessment units Unit A242: Making your mark in business. This unit represents 60% of the total GCSE (Single Award) marks and 30% of the total GCSE (Double Award) marks. It has a maximum of 60 marks. Candidates will choose one business scenario from a selection of five. They then choose a local business on which to base their subsequent research and complete all the tasks. This unit is internally assessed, applying the principles of Controlled Assessment. Controls are set within the assessment in each of the stages of the assessment process: Task setting: high level of control in relation to the setting of tasks. Task taking: this stage is divided into 2 different stages, each with a different level of control: – Research/data collection: limited level of control – Analysis and evaluation: high level of control Task marking: medium level of control. More information about each stage of the process is provided in the following sections of this Guide. Unit A244: Business and you This unit represents 60% of the total GCSE (Single Award) marks and 30% of the total GCSE (Double Award) marks. It has a maximum of 60 marks. Candidates will choose one job role from a selection of five and investigate a range of human resource activities in relation to this role. This unit is internally assessed, applying the principles of Controlled Assessment. Controls are set within the assessment in each of the stages of the assessment process: Task setting: high level of control in relation to the setting of tasks. Task taking: this stage is divided into 2 different stages, each with a different level of control: – Research/data collection: limited level of control – Analysis and evaluation: high level of control Task marking: medium level of control. More information about each stage of the process is provided in the following sections of this Guide.  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 5 3 Teacher guidance on how to plan Controlled Assessment 3. 1 Controlled Assessment delivery flow chart Timetabled Lessons OCR set tasks for centres Unit A242 Making your mark in business Task 1: Get prepared 2 hours Teacher Guidance/ Feedback Candidates Work in Progress Task induction Task research Task 2: Research Up to 30 hours Task 3: Consider your results 5 hours Task 4: Attract customers 6 hours Candidates Work in Progress Review outcomes of research. Task 5: Reflect on outcome 2 hours Unit A244 Business and you Task 1: Research Up to 30 hours Candidates Produce Outcome for Assessment Task completion Task authentication Task 2: Apply for the post 5 hours Task 3: Getting selected 5 hours Task 4: Best practice – induction 2 hours Evaluation/ Review Task 5: A promotional opportunity 3 hours Teacher Assessment and Submission to OCR for Moderation by specified deadlines Submission of marks: January series: 10 January June series: 15 May 6  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 3. 2 Guidance on the release of Controlled Assessment tasks to candidates 3. 2. 1 Choice of Controlled Assessment task For these GCSEs in Applied Business, OCR will assume a high level of control with regard to task setting. A number of scenarios will be available from OCR for the Controlled Assessment units. Once a scenario has been chosen, then the candidate will carry out necessary research in order to respond to a series of tasks. These tasks have been designed to meet the full assessment requirements of the unit. It is important that before candidates begin the assessment, they are equipped with the necessary knowledge, understanding and skills specified in each of the unit specifications for Units A242 and A244. Unit A242 – The candidate must choose one business scenario from a list of five and then choose a local business on which to base their subsequent investigations. The series of tasks which the candidate must complete are supplied by OCR. It should be noted that the types of business scenario have been chosen to be as wide ranging as possible to suit all centre requirements. Unit A244 – The candidate must choose one job role scenario from a list of five and investigate a range of human resource activities in relation to this role. The series of tasks which the candidate must complete are supplied by OCR. It should be noted that the types of job role scenarios have been chosen to be as wide ranging as possible to suit all centre requirements. Further guidance on how to choose a scenario for the Controlled Assessment will be provided within the Controlled Assessment scenario. Live OCR Controlled Assessment material must NOT be used as practice material. Centres should devise their own practice material or use the specimen Controlled Assessment material. 3. 2.2 When and how to give Controlled Assessment tasks to candidates Controlled Assessment tasks will be available from Interchange from 1 June 2009. Centres must be aware that live Controlled Assessment material will be reviewed on a regular basis to ensure to ensure that it continues to be fit for purpose. Should it be necessary to amend or revise the material then centres will be notified. Centres should refer to the sample scheme of work and lesson plans which are available to download from OCR’s website to assist planning and delivery of the Controlled Assessment units and its assessments.  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 7 3. 3 Guidance on research/data collection There must be a medium level of supervision when candidates complete the research/data collection element of these units. Candidates may need access to the internet; library, textbooks, and/or optional visits to local businesses. This research element can be carried out as part of a group or individually as outlined in the specification. (a) Authenticity control: Candidate can complete the research individually or in a group without direct teacher supervision. In Unit A242, each candidate MUST carry out both individual and group research. The write up of findings and responding to tasks must be completed individually and under direct supervision. The teacher must be able to authenticate the work. (b) Feedback control: Feedback to the candidate will be permissible but tightly defined. Within these specifications, OCR expects teachers to equip candidates with the knowledge, understanding and skills which they will need before they respond to the tasks. It should be remembered that candidates are required to reach their own judgements and conclusions without any guidance or assistance from others. When supervising tasks, teachers are expected to: Exercise continuing supervision of work in order to monitor progress and to prevent plagiarism Exercise continuing supervision of practical work to ensure essential compliance with Health and Safety requirements Ensure that the work is completed in accordance with the specification requirements and can be assessed in accordance with the specified marking criteria and procedures. (c) Time control: The overall time limits available to the candidate to complete the Controlled Assessments are specified in Sections 4. 1 and 4. 2 of these specifications. A more detailed breakdown of time limits for particular tasks is contained in the specimen Controlled Assessment material for Units A242 and A244. Tasks should be completed within the time limits set, and be supervised and marked by the teacher. Some of the work, by its very nature, may be undertaken outside the centre, eg research work. The use and application of the research material will be undertaken under direct teacher supervision. With all internally assessed work, the teacher must be satisfied that the work submitted for assessment is the candidate’s own work and be able to authenticate it using the specified procedure in Section 5. 4. 4 of these specifications. (d) Collaboration control: Group work is permissible in some cases for the research phase of the units. However, each candidate must respond to the tasks individually. Where group work is suggested as an alternative to individual work, candidates will still be analysing the outcome of the group work on an individual basis before forming their own conclusions. (e) Resource control: Access to resources will be limited to those appropriate to the task and as required by the unit. Candidates will need to be provided with the most appropriate materials and equipment to allow them full access to the marking criteria but this must be closely monitored and supervised, especially the level of ICT access. During the write up (Unit A242 Tasks 3, 4 and 5 and Unit A244 Tasks 2, 3, 4 and 5) candidates should only have access to their research which they have made during the research phase of task taking (Unit A242 Task 2 and Unit A244 Task 1). Generating and reviewing the action plan should be done in the specific time allocated for the completion of this task and should not form part of the write-up phase. It is the responsibility of the 8  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business centre to ensure that these are only research and that they do not include a draft or final version of the tasks 3. 4 Guidance on the production of the outcome 3. 4. 1 Controls for the production of the outcome Teachers must keep live Controlled Assessment tasks secure and confidential at all times whilst in their possession. For example, candidates may collect the results of any research or investigations undertaken in a research folder which must be handed in to the teacher before the writing up sessions begin. In such circumstances, it is the responsibility of the teacher to keep the research folders secure between the writing up sessions and that candidates do not have access to these folders outside of the allotted sessions. There must be a high level of supervision when candidates complete the Controlled Assessment tasks for these units. Although candidates will  have access to their research notes, they must work individually and be supervised at all times. Analysis and evaluation of findings – high control When candidates analyse and evaluate their findings as they address each of the Controlled Assessment tasks (excluding the research tasks, which carry no marks), they must be supervised at all times and work individually. Completing the tasks The candidate will be provided with sufficient time to complete all of the tasks. It is suggested that evidence is produced in a number of sessions, each focusing on a specific mini-task. Each candidate must produce individual and authentic evidence for each of the (mini) tasks. It is particularly important that those candidates who conducted research as part of the group still produce individual evidence. The teacher may give appropriate support and guidance to the candidates during the research phase of these units but not during the write-up phase. This support and guidance should focus on checking that the candidates understand what is expected of them. It is not acceptable for the teacher to provide model responses or to work through answers in detail. The candidate will have the opportunity to use information from a wide range of resources as part of their research time in Units A242 and A244. This research will help them to produce evidence which is clearly targeted to meeting the assessment requirements of each of the remaining tasks. It is not permissible, however, for candidates to introduce any new material into their evidence that is not accessed during this research time, and teachers must safeguard against this. Candidates must also be guided on the use of information to ensure that confidentiality and intellectual property rights are maintained at all times. It is essential that any material directly used from a source is appropriately and rigorously referenced. In both Units A242 and A244, candidates  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 9 will be asked to complete a bibliography during their research time which will be required for review at the point of internal assessment and external moderation. 3. 4. 2 Controlled Assessment task security It is the responsibility of the centre to ensure that downloaded Controlled Assessment Tasks and candidates’ scripts are stored securely. Any breach in security must be reported to OCR as soon a possible by submitting a written report (a blank report form is available on Interchange) from Head of Centre to the OCR Quality and Standards Division detailing the circumstances, the candidates concerned and any action taken. Candidates’ scripts for all completed Controlled Assessment tasks must be stored securely and they should be available for moderation. It is suggested that they are destroyed after the last date for Enquiries about Results following the examination series in which entries for the units concerned are made. Candidate absence at the time of assessment If a candidate is absent from a centre when an assessment is carried out, the Controlled Assessment task may be set at an alternative time provided that the centre is satisfied that security has been maintained by keeping all materials secure. Unexpected circumstances If an unexpected problem (such as a fire alarm or other circumstances beyond the teachers’ control) occurs while a Controlled Assessment task is taking place, the task may be resumed subsequently provided the teacher ensures that no candidate is likely to have been advantaged or disadvantaged by doing so. 3. 4.3 Presentation of work Candidates must observe certain procedures in the production of Controlled Assessments. ? charts, graphs, images and tables may be produced using appropriate ICT. These should be inserted into the candidate’s evidence at the appropriate place any copied material must be suitably acknowledged quotations must be clearly marked and a reference provided wherever possible work submitted for moderation or marking must be marked with the: – centre number – centre name – candidate number – candidate name – unit code and title. ? ? ? 10  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business Work submitted on paper for moderation or marking must be secured by treasury tags. Work submitted in digital format (CD or online) must be in a suitable file structure as shown in Appendix B of the Specification.  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 11 4 Controlled Assessment candidate guidelines 4. 1 Task setting For this subject OCR will provide a list of tasks. 4. 2 Task taking 4. 2. 1 What can I do in relation to research, drafting and re-drafting? Your teacher will discuss the tasks on offer and the proposed areas of enquiry and the resources available. An induction period into the research methods, sourcing and the use of equipment may also take place. Time constraints and a programme should be adopted and this will be explained by your teacher. Your research and planning may involve interviews, fieldwork, visits, library research, internet research or questionnaires. You should keep a record of the sources you have consulted at this stage and this will form part of your portfolio. You should provide a plan of action to the teacher which can be discussed. You teacher will inform you what materials are appropriate and inappropriate. Your draft piece will be discussed with your teacher and they may offer advice, answer any questions and give feedback. Throughout this process your teacher will supervise to ensure there is no plagiarism and will ensure all your work is within the Health and Safety requirements and that all candidates work is in accordance with the Controlled Assessment regulations. At no stage will model answers be provided. You should reach your own conclusions and make your own judgements and any teacher support will be recorded. You may be given opportunity to edit, check redraft and reorganise your work. During this period your teacher may make general observations but will not give any specific advice. 4. 2. 2 How much teacher support can I expect? During your work for Controlled Assessment you must produce work/evidence independently but your teacher will be able to give you some advice, support, guidance and feedback but the amount will vary depending upon the type of task you are doing. You must make your own judgements and draw your own conclusions but your teacher will: 12  ©OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business ? ? Offer advice about how best to approach a task offer guidance on the way you work in groups so that you all have an opportunity to tackle your tasks offer advice to help your research, possibly arranging visits to place of interest, if this is appropriate monitor your progress to make sure your work gets underway in a planned and timely manner ensure that your work meets the Specification requirements keep a log of the feedback they give you supervise any practical work you do to ensure you receive advice about health and safety. ? ? ? ? ? The support given by your teacher will be to make sure you understand what it is you have to do. Your teacher will not be allowed to provide model responses for you or work through your responses or outcomes in detail. 4. 2. 3 What can I expect in the supervised sessions? This period should include some form of evaluation either in the written form, in a teacher interview or a presentation to the group. For the last two your teacher may record these sessions. This is particularly essential in group work where the teacher will be attempting to ascertain your individual contribution within the group. You should reference all sources used and any materials you have used in the whole piece whether in supervised or unsupervised sessions. Quotations should be clearly marked and referenced to ensure all intellectual property rights are maintained. It is unlikely that complete downloaded documents from the internet are suitable. Your teacher will sign an authentication form to complete the process. You may also be asked to sign the form.  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 13 5 Teacher guidance on task marking 5. 1 Generic guidance on how to mark Controlled Assessment tasks The marking criteria detail the skills, knowledge and understanding which the candidate is required to demonstrate. The (mini) task should be marked by the teacher according to the given marking criteria using a ‘best fit’ approach. For each of the (mini) tasks, the assessor should select the descriptors, provided in the marking criteria, which most closely describe the quality of work being marked. Marking should be positive, rewarding achievement rather than penalising failure or omissions. The award of marks must be directly related to the marking criteria. Teachers use their professional judgement in selecting the descriptor which best describes the work of the candidate. To select the most appropriate mark within this descriptor, teachers should use the following guidance: ? where the candidate’s work convincingly meets the descriptor, the higher marks in the mark range should be awarded where the candidate’s work adequately meets the descriptor, the most appropriate mark in the middle range should be awarded where the candidate’s work just meets the descriptor, the lowest marks in the mark range should be awarded. ? ? The final mark for the candidate for each unit is out of a total of 60 and is found by totalling the marks for each of the (mini) tasks. 5. 2 Unpacking assessment objectives in Controlled Assessment tasks Assessment objectives (AOs) identify what the candidate has to do. They specify the context and use the ‘command words’ to indicate the level of the intellectual task, so, for example, the candidate may be directed to ‘identify’, ‘describe’ or ‘explain’. 14  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business Assessment objective 1 assesses candidates’ ability to recall, select and communicate their knowledge and understanding of concepts issues and  terminology; Assessment objective 2 assesses candidates’ ability to apply skills, knowledge and understanding in a variety of contexts and in planning and carrying out investigations and tasks; Assessment objective 3 assesses candidates’ ability to analyse and evaluate, make reasoned judgements and present conclusions. 5. 3 Interpretation of the Controlled Assessment marking criteria These general assessment objectives have been contextualised to the specific tasks in each Controlled Assessment (see the assessment grids below). So the teacher needs to: 1.identify the knowledge and skills the candidate will need to demonstrate if they have meet the AO 2. identify what the candidate has to do with this knowledge and/or skill; for example, should they be describing or explaining? Each assessment objective has been written at 3 levels, which increase in intellectual difficulty. The teacher will need to make a holistic judgement of which level (1, 2 or 3) best fits the candidate’s work. In general terms, a candidate who is able to produce some limited evidence for achieve Mark Band 1. A candidate who produces a range or evidence but significant gaps in coverage, knowledge and understanding, is likely to achieve candidate who has addresses most, or all of the issues needed to fully complete to achieve Mark Band 3. a task is likely to where there are Mark Band 2. A the tasks is likely For example, in Mark Band 1 a candidate might identify some relevant knowledge required to address the task but fails to adequately explain the issues. In Mark Band 2 a candidate might list a comprehensive range of issues and explore them all to the required standard but some explanations are incorrect or lacking application to the context. In Mark Band 3 a candidate is likely to identify an appropriate range of issues and analyse them all appropriately, in depth and within the required context. 5. 4 Authentication of Controlled Assessment outcomes Teachers must be confident that the work they mark is the candidate’s own. This does not mean that a candidate must be supervised throughout the completion of all work but the teacher/course tutor must exercise sufficient supervision, or introduce sufficient checks, to be in a position to judge the authenticity of the candidate’s work. Candidates must not plagiarise. Plagiarism is the submission of another’s work as one’s own and/or failure to acknowledge the source correctly. Plagiarism is considered to be malpractice and could lead to the candidate being disqualified. Plagiarism sometimes occurs innocently when candidates are unaware of the need to reference or acknowledge their sources. It is therefore  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 15 important that centres ensure that candidates understand that the work they submit must be their own and that they understand the meaning of plagiarism and what penalties may be applied. Candidates may refer to research, quotations or evidence but they must list their sources. The rewards from acknowledging sources, and the credit they will gain from doing so, should be emphasised to candidates, as well as the potential risks of failing to acknowledge such material. The candidate must sign a declaration to this effect. Centres should reinforce this message to ensure that candidates understand what is expected of them. Please note: Centres must confirm to OCR that the evidence produced by the candidate is authentic. The Centre Authentication Form includes a declaration for assessors to sign. It is a requirement of the QCA Common Criteria for all Qualifications that proof of authentication is received. 5. 5 Internal Standardisation of Controlled Assessment It is important that all internal assessors, working in the same subject area, work to common standards. Centres must ensure that the internal standardisation of marks across assessors and teaching groups takes place using an appropriate procedure. This can be done in a number of ways. In the first year, reference material and OCR training meetings will provide a basis for centres’ own standardisation. In subsequent years, this, or centres’ own archive material, may be used. Centres are advised to hold preliminary meetings of staff involved to compare standards through cross-marking a small sample of work. After most marking has been completed, a further meeting at which work is exchanged and discussed will enable final adjustments to be made. 5. 6 Moderation of Controlled Assessment All work is marked by the teacher and internally standardised by the centre. Marks are then submitted to OCR, after which moderation takes place in accordance with OCR procedures: refer to the OCR website for submission dates of the marks to OCR. The purpose of moderation is to ensure that the standard of the award of marks for work is the same for each centre and that each teacher has applied the standards appropriately across the range of candidates within the centre. The sample of work which is presented to the Moderator for moderation must show how the marks have been awarded in relation to the marking criteria. Each candidate’s work should have a cover sheet attached to it with a summary of the marks awarded. If the work is to be submitted in digital format this cover sheet should also be submitted electronically within each of the candidate’s files. 5. 7 Minimum requirements for Controlled Assessment There should be clear evidence that work has been attempted and some work produced. If a candidate submits no work for an internally assessed component, then the candidate should be indicated as being absent from that component on the mark sheets submitted to OCR. If a candidate completes any work at all for an internally assessed component, then the work should be assessed according to the internal assessment objectives and marking instructions and the appropriate mark awarded, which may be zero. 16.  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 5. 8 Submission date for Controlled Assessment Candidate’s marks must be despatched to the Moderator and to OCR. Please refer to the OCR website for details of submission dates relevant to the current series of examinations.  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business 17 6 FAQs What are the dates in which the Controlled Assessments can be taken? Controlled Assessment is a form of internal assessment and as such there isn’t a specified date in which Controlled Assessment has to be taken. It is up to the centre to decide when Controlled Assessment will be taken: guidance on this can be found in Section 5: Controlled Assessment of all revised GCSE Specifications (first teaching in September 2009). When can teachers and candidates access the material? Controlled Assessment tasks will be available from Interchange on 1 June of the year prior to an assessment series, i. e. 1 June 2009 for assessment in June 2010 series. Tasks may be reviewed and it is the responsibility of centres to make sure that candidates are submitting the correct task. Why are you not making hard copies available to centres? This is an internal assessment and centres are responsible for the resource of internal assessment. It would be impossible to despatch hard copies of the Controlled Assessment without vast amounts of provisional entry data. Can any preparation work be done out of the classroom? Yes. Controls are set at the level of tasks setting, task taking and task marking. Preparation work comes into the task taking level, under Research and Data Collection, which have a limited level of control i. e. work can be carried out without direct supervision. More guidance on this can be found can be found in Section 5: Controlled Assessment of all revised GCSE Specifications (first teaching in September 2009). Is there a minimum or maximum time that can be spent on the assessments? Suggested time limits vary per subject: there are suggested time limits given in Section 5: Controlled Assessment of all revised GCSE Specifications (first teaching in September 2009). Where can the Controlled materials be accessed and by whom? Controlled Assessment tasks and other documents are accessed via Interchange. Centre access to the Interchange Controlled Assessment area will be available to the registered Centre User (normally the Examinations Officer). However, the Centre User can set access permissions to others within their centre, eg HODs, subject leaders or subject teachers. How long is each assessment valid for i. e can we use last year’s one this year? 18  © OCR 2009 Guide to Controlled Assessment in GCSE Applied Business Tasks may be reviewed and it is the responsibility of centres to make sure that candidates are submitting the correct task. Where can the Mark Schemes be accessed? Mark Schemes are included in the specifications and can also be accessed from the OCR website: In addition, Mark Schemes are attached at the end of each Sample Assessment Material and also available from OCR Interchange. Do we have to take the Controlled Assessment under exam conditions/teacher supervision? Yes, but only for the write up , i. e. the last part of Controlled Assessment when candidates are producing the outcomes of their research – note that this can be over more than one supervised session. More guidance on this can be found in Section 5: Controlled Assessment of all revised GCSE Specifications (first teaching in September 2009). Are the Controlled Assessments the same as written examinations, can we re-sit? Yes, candidates can resit controlled assessed units but as with any other unit, candidates can only resit once. Also, the 40% terminal rule means that 40% of the assessment has to be taken in the examination series in which the qualification has to be awarded. Centres have the responsibility to ensure that the correct tasks are used for a controlled assessme.

African Americans and Segregation The Civil Rights Movement

Imagine being a Negro in the 20th century. To be hated because of the color of your skin, to still be a slave in a â€Å"slave-less world†, to fear speaking up for yourself because it will only result in losing everything or being killed, or to be constantly reminded of how unworthy you were. How far would you go to be looked upon as an equal? Throughout the 1950s, African Americans experienced things that made them who they were – angry Americans. They encountered racial discrimination, segregation, and unequal opportunities. Within the play Fences, by August Wilson, we can see just how the play exemplifies what is happening in the world around them. African Americans experienced the hatred of the whites everywhere they went and soon it was†¦show more content†¦Dr. Kenneth Clark, an African-American psychologist, presented results from experiments he had conducted in which 16 black children between the ages of six and nine were shown black and white dolls. The majority indicated that the black dolls looked â€Å"bad† and the white dolls â€Å"nice†Ã¢â‚¬  (Schwartz). Blacks of all ages were being tormented by whites and this caused more harm than good. Within the play, Cory and Troy were the main characters who were portrayed this way. Troy didn’t like the way his father treated him and in turn made Cory disagree with Troy’s parenting. Because blacks could not place their angry on the right individuals, it left many homes broken and unsafe to live in. But like everything in life, it takes time for change to happen. African Americans always had to do as the whites demanded of them. But eventually they grew tired of being mistreated. And that was when everything began to change. African Americans began to speak up for themselves, â€Å"African Americans had been fighting against racial discrimination for centuries; during the 1950s, however, the struggle against racism and segregation entered the mainstream of American life (History 1950).† Even Troy spoke out about unequal opportunities when he was faced with it in the workforce, â€Å"why you got them white men’s driving and the colored lifting? What’s the matter, don’t I count? You think only white fellows got enough sense to drive aShow MoreRelatedThe Jim Crow Laws And School Segregation810 Words   |  4 Pagesthe population most affected by this were African Americans. Two of the most critical injustices committed in America during the 20th century were the development of the Jim Crow laws and school segregatio n. However, these injustices have been rectified as a result of the Civil Rights Movement and the decision of the supreme court of Brown v. Board of Education which brought important changes to African Americans. African Americans were deprived of many rights that they should have possessed as citizensRead MoreI Have A Dream Speech1508 Words   |  7 Pagesgained the support of thousands African-American people and not only from the ones who participated in the event. It also gained support of prominent colored members of the community. Martin Luther King Junior, a Baptist minister in Montgomery, emerged as a prominent figure for this movement. King helped to found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a civil rights organization that founght to end racial segregation in the south (History-Civil Rights Movement). In August of nineteen-sixty-threeRead MoreThe Importance of the Civil Rights Leaders Essay1391 Words   |  6 Pagesrisk that civil right leaders had to make. Civil right leaders constantly risk their lives and their freedom. Civil right leaders fought for equality and freedom for African Americans. Over 70% of African Americans were experiencing segregation and discriminat ion during the civil right movement. African Americans only had one another for support, so during this time African Americans appreciated civil right leaders. During the civil rights movement, many leaders helped African Americans cope withRead MoreImpact Of John F Kennedy On The Civil Rights Act Of 19641080 Words   |  5 PagesKennedy had a major influence on the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Prior to the act, segregation in the United States was still strongly supported, but civil rights groups continued to fight against racism. After the election of 1960, John F. Kennedy continually supported the civil rights movement and he created a Civil Rights Act to fight for equal rights. After his assassination in 1963, the Civil Rights Act act was passed. Segregation in the United States was very present prior to theRead MoreThe Legacy of Martin Luther King Jr.1123 Words   |  4 Pagesleader for African Americans throughout the Civil Rights Movement. He was put in jail for his non-violent civil rights campaigns, spoke out for racial justice, and tried to find an end to racial discrimination. King’s legacy is still known present day, and continues to be one of the most well known leaders. Throughout Martin Luther King Jr.’s lifetime and the Civil Rights Movement, King was devoted to abolish segregation, while bringing equality and justice for his fellow African Americans. With theRead MoreAnalysis Of The Documentary Eyes On The American Civil Rights Movement 783 Words   |  4 Pagesa PBS documentary film series that eye lights the American Civil Rights Movement. The documentary series also depicts the struggle to end racial discrimination and segregation and how small acts of courage began the Civil Rights Movement. I was able to watch three one-hour series, Awakening (1954-1956), Fighting Back (1957 – 1962) and Ain’t Scared of your Jails (1960 – 1961). These series are poignant and takes us through the days of segregation and inequality and the grassroots protests to SupremeRead MoreThe Civil Rights Movement Essay1259 Words   |  6 Pages The civil right movement refers to the reform movement in the United States beginning in the 1954 to 1968 led primarily by Blacks for outlawing racial discrimination against African-Americans to prove the civil rights of personal Black citizen. For ten decades after the Emancipation Proclamation, African-Americans in Southern states still live a rigid unequal world of deprive right of citizenship, segregation and various forms of oppression, including race-inspired violence. â€Å"JimRead MoreAnalysis Of The Explorer By Gwendolyn Brooks1318 Words   |  6 Pagestalk about how African Americans are oppressed by whites. To be specific, the main character, male or female, is on the run from white society. Brooks used words such as voices, scream, nervous, and griefs to describe what the main character is feeling as he is searching for a peaceful place. The reader can tell that society at that time was not perfect, but unfair and dangerous. Taking part in the civil righ ts movement herself, this poem specifically stresses that African Americans were tyrannizedRead MoreCivil Rights/Secret Life of Bees986 Words   |  4 PagesDiscrimination and Segregation In 1619 the very first African Americans arrived in America, coming over for the purpose of forced slavery. It’s been nearly four hundred years since then and African Americans are still not treated completely equal. But throughout the years major steps towards equality have been made and as a whole the United States is close to reaching this goal. The first key action taken was abolishing slavery in 1865, but African Americans didn’t start gaining equal rights until 1955Read MoreThe Segregation Of The United States1546 Words   |  7 Pagesdevastating history of segregation in the United States. A lot has changed in the past fifty years since segregation ended. The United States shifted from arresting African Americans for using â€Å"white only† facilities to integrated schools all over the country. Influential individuals such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr helped pave the way for African Americans to live as equals to along with their white counter parts in the United States of America. What is Segregation In 1896 the United

The Six Stages Of Critical Thinking - 947 Words

Introduction We will be discussing the six stages of critical thinking presented by Paul and Elder. We will be exploring each stage to gain a better understanding of how each stage works towards becoming a better critical thinker. We will commence self observation of ourselves and see what stage we consider ourselves to be currently at. Finally, we will set a long term goal and generate a plan to obtain that goal of becoming a overall better critical thinker. Unreflective Thinker The unreflective thinker does not stop and observe their thoughts or how those thoughts affect there actions or beliefs (Paul Elder, Critical Thinking in Everyday Life: 9 Strategies, 2001; Paul Elder, Critical Thinking Development: A Stage Theory, 2001). The unreflective thinker is also lacks the knowledge that he/she has problems in there thinking (Paul Elder, Critical Thinking Development: A Stage Theory, 2001). Unreflective thinkers tend to have some skills unknowingly but these skills had been picked up during challenging times while not aware and are not orchestrated in any manner (Paul Elder, Critical Thinking in Everyday Life: 9 Strategies, 2001) The Challenged Thinker starts to recognize that there is existing problems with his or her thinking (Paul Elder, Critical Thinking in Everyday Life: 9 Strategies, 2001). This thinker starts to notice these issues by conductive self reflection and deep thought (Paul Elder, Critical Thinking Development: A Stage Theory, 2001). One traitShow MoreRelatedCritical Thinking By Edward Glaser1285 Words   |  6 PagesFebruary 2016 Critical Thinking In a inspiring study on critical thinking and education in 1941, Edward Glaser defines critical thinking as â€Å"The ability to think critically, as conceived in this volume, involves three things: (1) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one s experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3) skill in applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for aRead MoreStages of Critical Thinking998 Words   |  4 PagesMaterial Stages of Critical Thinking Stages of Critical Thinking Complete the matrix by identifying the six stages of critical thinking, describing how to move from each stage to the next, and listing obstacles you may face as you move to the next stage of critical thinking. Stages of critical thinking How to move to the next stage Obstacles to moving to the next stage EXAMPLE: The Unreflective Thinker Examine my thinking to identify problems that affect my thinking. DeceivingRead MoreCritical Thinking And Higher Order Learning Essay881 Words   |  4 PagesCritical Thinking in Quality for Manufacturing Critical thinking and higher order learning is of paramount importance to the progression and survival of the human race. According to Cruz, critical thinking allows us to gage whether or not our actions are valuable. â€Å"If they have no value, one stops engaging or thinking in them and adopt a new set of actions and thoughts.† This quote provides the basis that through critical thinking one is able to progress further. This same concept is applicable toRead MoreA Personal Assessment Of Dasani, The Invisible Child Essay1185 Words   |  5 Pagesdifferent theories. These theories include Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development, Stimulation Theories, Control Theories and the Practice Orientation versus Culture of Poverty. Each theory will be broken down into it’s own section of synopsis and then assessment of Dasani to give a better understanding of her spiritual and cultural dimensions and her physical environment. Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development Synopsis James Fowler developed his stages of faith after conduction in-depth interviews ofRead MoreHow Do Schools Help Children Develop Critical Thinking Skills And Move On From Concrete1062 Words   |  5 PagesIt’s Critical to Get Children Thinking Although schools have recently incorporated requirements to help the development of critical thinking, it remains a skill that is often learned outside of the classroom. Through the program of Common Core, schools have created an environment of higher standards and problem solving courses. Along with critical thinking, abstract thinking looks at the deeper meaning of things, and they both begin in young ages in children. The jump from concrete to abstractRead MoreMy Current Level Of Critical Thinking And How Can It Be Improved Essay1492 Words   |  6 Pagesconsist of; the ability to use and develop critical thinking, formation of patient objectives, comprehension of learning processes, the proper use of constructivism and an understanding of how the field of Physical Therapy has changed. With this paper, I will demonstrate my knowledge of these topics while answering the following questions: What is critical thinking and how can it be used in Physical Therapy? What is my current l evel of critical thinking and how can it be improved? What are the objectivesRead MoreCognitive Theory : Baxter Magolda s Model And The Moral Theory Of Rest s Approach Essay1321 Words   |  6 PagesThe Baxter Magolda’s Model focuses on the epistemological reflection through four stages with gender related differences. According to Patton, Evans, Forney, Guido, Quaye (2016) the epistemological reflection encompasses the assumptions about the nature, limits, and certainty of knowledge. (p. 363) Baxter’s model was one of the first to address gender in cognitive development in both men and women. The four stages that Baxter utilizes include: â€Å"Absolute, Transitional, Independent, and ContextualRead MoreRisks And Risk Response Strategies1736 Words   |  7 Pagesof projects are the plan, do, check, act (PDCA) approach and Six Sigma. While the PDCA approach is a four-step management method that aims to improve the quality of projects by developing critical thinking (Anderson, 2011), Six Sigma is a set of tools and techniques which aim to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying the cause of defects and making the business and manufacturing processes less variable (Tennant, 2001). Six Sigma shares several similarities with the PDCA cycle, theRead MoreThe Theories That Best Resonate With Me Essay1179 Words   |  5 Pagesdevelopment. Baxter Magolda’s Model The Baxter Magolda’s Model focuses on the epistemological reflection through four stages with gender related differences. The epistemological reflection encompasses the assumptions about the nature, limits, and certainty of knowledge. Baxter’s model was one of the first to address gender in cognitive development in both men and women. The four stages that Baxter utilizes include: Absolute, Transitional, Independent, and Contextual knowing. (p. 363) Through AbsoluteRead MoreLean Manufacturing Six Sigma Manufacturing1228 Words   |  5 PagesDISCUSSION Lean manufacturing six sigma Manufacturing: Six sigma and lean system has the same way of approaching but uses different technology to achieve the goal. The both procedure lives up to expectations for to dispense with waste and expand the productivity of the procedure and convey the zero defect items. Recognizable of primary cause of waste is the fundamental distinction between lean and six sigma. lean innovation says that waste originates from undesirable steps in the production process

Airstar Companys Contextual Problems - Unclear Risks, Lack of Communi Case Study

Essays on Airstar Company's Contextual Problems - Unclear Risks, Lack of Communication, and Unclear Organizational Goals Case Study The paper â€Å"Airstar Company’s Contextual Problems - Unclear Risks, Lack of Communication, and Unclear Organizational Goals" is a  worthy version of a case study on management. The purpose of this study was to take a critical analysis of the situation at Airstar Company which has resulted in a decline in performance and efficiency and thereafter write a report including the recommendations that can be used to offer a solution to the problem. This analysis has found out that organizational design is the source of declining performance and efficiency. This is because it has forced the company to operate in disintegrated organizational structure and strategy where goals, duties, and responsibilities are not clear. Some of the management issues that have been identified and that related to a poor organization design include lack of appropriate communication channels, lack of clear tasks and unclear company goals and objectives. In general, this report has found out that the success of any organization greatly depends on the effectiveness of its organizational design. This is because the organizational design must be holistic and must take into account the various components such as people, company structures, organization processes, and processes and how all of them can interact effectively to realize the predetermined organizational goals and objectives. Finally, three main recommendations have been framed to help solve the problem at Airstar and they include: agreeing on organization design criteria, identifying the appropriate operating models and focus on good governance.Despite the efforts being made by many organizations to come up with a clear shape of the company, it is emerging that factoring in different processes, activities, and people, is becoming a big challenge. Organizational design is what defines the business and its operations. Because of the various factors that are involved in making up an organization, the design is expected to fa cilitate coordination and close relationships within an organization. In simple terms, the organizational design has defined the process of put aligning factors such as processes, people, coordination activities, control mechanisms and lateral connection of an organization to its structure in order to suit in the operating environment (Romme 2003). Organizational design is important in ensuring that an appropriate organizational structure has been developed and that accommodates all other factors and that which allows for strategizing to realize the company objectives. With this regard, therefore, organizational design identifies all the processes, activities, functions, processes and activity control measures that are integrated and allowed to flow in a logical way. However, without proper organizational design, the organizational structure and strategy are likely to be on disarray and even there will be no single acceptable flow of activities (Frans et al 2000). It is with this re gard that this analysis has embarked on a mission to establish how poor organizational design can lead to a decline in performance. This analysis will refer to Airstar Inc.1.1 Company background informationAirstar Company as an organization operates in the aviation industry. The company business is manufacturing, repairing and replacing pistons and engines of small aircraft. In the industry, the company for over years has enjoyed a lot of support in the market because of its brand recognition which enabled the company to have a positive reputation. However, this was all because of the company’s strategy of establishing a solid market niche. While serving the company market niche, top of priority was quality services and this was demonstrated from the company’s ability to superior quality, safety, and customer service. This strategy did a lot of good for the company in terms of market growth and revenue generation. However, with the change in leadership after the death of the company founder five years ago, the company has experienced some difficulties more especially in performance and efficiency. The company problems have also been made worse with the stiff competition from General Electric and Pratt Whitney. Reduction in the orders by the customers is a clear demonstration of how the company was performing under the leadership of Roy Morgan as its president.

Free College Admissionss Learning from Mist Essay Example For Students

Free College Admissionss: Learning from Mist Essay akes College Admissions EssaysLearning from Mistakes One day that I will probably never forget is the day that I had to play Jonathan Walker. He was easily the best table tennis player in our school and he had even been offered to play on the National Junior team. I remember the match as if it was yesterday. It was the time of year when competition smelled thick in the air and everyone was excited about Inter-House Sports. I was particularly involved in Tennis and Chess but I was really excited about Table Tennis as I had been named Vice-Captain. It was a grueling school day that had ended with an arduous 120-minute Chemistry practical. The school bell that rang was like sweet music to my ears and the only thought that whisked through my mind was that of going home and sleeping in my big, comfortable bed. Just then, I remembered that the Table Tennis contest between Team C and Team D which also incidentally the finals, was at 4:00 p.m. I sluggishly changed into the clothes that I had in my locker and headed for the Games Room. I was very tired and hoped that I would have an easy opponent. However, this was not to be my lucky day. The captain of our team, Jason, was sick so I had to play the opposing captain, namely, Jonathan. Panic and doom were those thoughts that dominated my mind when I was told this. However, I was always an optimist and tried to convince myself that I could defeat him (Yeah right!). We approached the table and shook hands. In the few initial minutes, we warmed up, just casually rallying the ball around, but even then he was playing better tennis than I ever had. The coach then blew his whistle which concluded the warm up and signaled the commencement of the match. At this point in time, I tried to swallow all the fear and anxiety that I had and to face my opponent valiantly and courageously. The match began and before I had fully realized, he had won the first game 21-05. He had won it with the utmost ease, returning even my best shots without any struggles or even remote difficulty. I tried not to feel discouraged, saying to myself that he still had two more games to win and that I would not give in without a fight. The second game was closer but I was still not able to break his rigid backspin defense that he used against all my good serves. I realized here that the key here to me winning the game was to use my brain and not just my table-tennis skills. I started to experiment with a variety of serves until I found one that gave him great difficulty to return. It was a rather simple serve which one would not expect to find in a match of this caliber. I learned at that point in time that sometimes simple things could be better solutions to a problem than complex ones could ever be. I lost the second game 21-17 but was confident now that I had a good chance of defeating this adversary of mine. Jonathan made a critical mistake in the third game that I believe worked to my advantage. He became over-confident and therefore careless, giving me easy points and hence keeping me in the match. The game went to a tie-break. I was tired but somehow I found the strength to play on and won the game 28-26. With this win, I became even more confident and aggressive in my game-play which I believe intimidated Jonathan and though he tried to discourage me by using his fancy serves to get the crowd on his side, I won the fourth game 21-18. Jonathan was furious that he had let me win two games and was determined to crush and humiliate me in front of the crowd. He used all his lethal shots against me and I was also becoming worn out. I tried to keep up with him but his better style of playing kept the crowd on his side. The score was now 19-17 in his favor. Here, there was a long rally, gruesomely long, where it was loop vs. loop, chop vs. chop and smash vs. smash. I realized that whoever won this point, would have psychologically won the match. The point lasted for about 35 seconds but seemed like years. Beads of sweat were trickling down my forehead and I could taste the salty liquid in my mouth but I was determined to win. When his smash somehow found my racket and the ball returned to his side of the table hitting the edge on its way out, I realized that I had won the point. I won the next two points with relative ease and this brought me to match point. I was dizzy from extreme exhaustion, felt great apprehension about what I hoped to be the last point and could hear the crowd in the background cheering for me now. However, Jonathan was as energetic as ever and had not even had a mild sweat. I did not let this discourage me, however, and I gathered all my remaining strength for the task at hand. I served the ball low and it harmlessly hit the net. I had just wasted perhaps the best opportunity for victory and now it was deuce. I was angry with my self for being o careless and made a fatal mistake. I focused on the point that I had lost instead of the points that were ahead of m e and by loosing the next two points, I not only lost the game, but the match as well and perhaps the greatest victory of my table tennis career. A sense of victory did not permeate the air around me and instead of congratulations, I received phrases like, Better luck next time. I went home sad and depressed, focusing on my loss. However, at that split second, I realized that this is what had made me lose the match. I learned there that one cannot be perfect and that one cannot always win, but that one must learn to deal with his failures and to learn form them. After all, those who do not learn form history are doomed to repeat it. Sometimes, we gain more from defeat than from victory! That day was a day that I will remember for the rest of my life, not because I won but because I lost. I learned some invaluable lessons and sincerely believe that I had gained more through defeat than I would have ever gained through victory. The knowledge that I gained there helped me in future s ituations and I believe that this particular experience has helped me in my process of maturing as a person. 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The Past and the Future of Human Rights Essays - Human Rights

Throughout human existence, people have developed sets of values for measuring our responsibilities to each other. Almost 4,000 years ago, a Babylonian king named Hammurabi devised a set of laws for his people. ?Hammurabi?s Codes established fair wages, offered protection of property, and required that charges be proven at trial? (Schulz, 2001). Hammurabi's Codes are an important part of history because they were the basis for consolidating the rule of law throughout an empire, they reveal the way human rights were beginning to emerge in Babylonia and they show that many of today?s problems also existed in Babylon. ?Remarkable as it seems, it took almost 4,000 years from the days of Hammurabi for the world to agree on a statement of rights that nearly everybody active on the international scene at the time acknowledged applied to everybody else ? even to one?s enemies! ? simply because everybody is a human being? (Schulz, 2001). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is the world?s ?formal itemization of rights?that anybody could claim, from Hammurabi?s rights to wages, property, and a fair trial to the rights to marry freely, to join trade unions, to receive an education, to speak an opinion, and to not be tortured? (Schulz, 2001). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights celebrated its sixtieth anniversary three years ago. Over the past six decades, human rights have expanded and progressed, yet they still face many barriers and challenges. While the challenges facing human rights are real, they are not undefeatable. Human rights have faced many setbacks over the years, but ?defenders of human rights show a capacity to rise to the scale of great challenges, and to move history in unanticipated new directions? (Ishay, 2010). It is my belief that in the future there will be many improvements to human THE PAST AND THE FUTURE 3 rights, and in this paper I will discuss the history of human rights, realism as it applies to human rights, and how we can restore America?s international standing as a defender of human rights. Over the centuries, people gained rights and duties by belonging to a group, for example, a family, nation, religion, class, community, or state. Most of the early groups had traditions similar to the ?golden rule? of ?Do unto others as you would have them do unto you? (Schulz, 2001). All societies, whether in oral or written tradition have had systems of keeping order and taking care of their members. ?The Romans were probably the first to establish the concept of citizens? rights, but the modern American notion of rights derives from such seminal documents as the Magna Carta (1215), the English Bill of Rights (1689), the U.S. Bill of Rights (1791), and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789)? (Schulz, 2001). All of these documents are the written precursors to many of today?s human rights documents, yet most of these documents excluded women, people of color, and members of certain social, religious, economic, and political groups. The Universal Declarati on of Human Rights promotes respect for the human rights of everyone. After World War II, human rights began to take flight because the horrors of the Holocaust appalled the world. ?Trials were held in Nuremberg and Tokyo after World War II, and officials from the defeated countries were punished for committing war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against humanity? (Perez & Esposito, 2010). The United Nations was established, with the primary goal of maintaining human rights and protecting people from harm. They wanted to make sure that people would never be denied the right to life, freedom, food, shelter, or nationality. The citizens of the world witnessed THE PAST AND THE FUTURE4 unspeakable acts against humans, and took action to ensure that it never happened again. ?The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was written for nations and defined human entitlements to be promoted and protected by all nations? (Gauthier, 2009). The world during the aftermath of World War II was very unstable. Defenders of human rights looked at the world and decided what changes needed to be made, and thus the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was born. Realists, though, ?claim to view the world as it is, not as it ought to be?